引言
最早提出“语境”概念的是语言学家马林洛夫斯基。传统的语境学是基于语境的静态研究,局限于语言的上下文,强调“当时当地正在发生的人活动(朱永生 2005:3)”,忽略了语言外的知识。弗斯 (1950)在文章“Personality of situationin society”开始关注语言外的社会因素,并逐渐研究特定交际情境中语言的社会适应性,也未能阐释交际中人的心理、社会因素对言语交际的影响。因此,随着认知语用学的出现,从认知角度用命题演绎、心理映射、模块理论动态地研究语境,成为语境研究的新趋势。Sperber 和Wilson于1986年提出的关联理论是认知语用学代表性理论,从关联角度阐述了语境的动态选择。
Sperber和Wilson认为语境是一个心理构建体,是存在于听话者脑海中的一系列假设,包括百科信息,逻辑信息,词汇信息,即认知语境(2011:15),动态决定语义阐释:当新信息激活听话者脑海中的信息图示, 并与认知环境产生认知互明,依据最佳关联原则,听话者将自动选取最为关联的假设,为话语理解构建新的语境,推导说话人的话语含义。
认知语境自动选择语境假设取得最大语境效果的过程就是最佳关联的过程,话语理解体现了认知语境的动态选择。
一 语境的选择模式
(一)非关联和欠关联的语用模式
关联理论认为言语交际包含两种归约性意图,信息意图和交际意图。听话者根据说话者提供的明示信息使用最小努力得到最大语境效果,就是信息意图实现的过程。相反,说话者提供的新信息和听话人原有语境假设结合失败,但说话者的明示信息又值得听话者尽最大努力构建新的语境假设去理解,那么得出话语含义的过程就是交际意图实现的过程。但是并非所有的语境假设都具有语境效果。
关联理论指出,当且仅当新假设加强原有假设,与原有假设矛盾或否定原假设,或者可推导出隐含话语含义时,非关联或者欠关联的话语假设本身才是关联的(2002:18)。
例1.JIM LEHRER:We'll talk about -- specificallyabout health care in a moment, but what is -- do yousupport the voucher system, Governor?
MITT ROMNEY:What I support is no change forcurrent retirees and near-retirees to Medicare and thepresident supports taking $716 billion out of that program.
(The First Presidential Debate, 2012)对话选取双方对社保和医疗计划改革的讨论。罗姆尼州长改革受益对象是未来的受益者,被批判为“优惠券”计划。主持人在“优惠券”计划被例数种种弊端后询问罗姆尼州长是否支持该计划,罗姆尼州长表达了不改变针对“当前”和“即将退休”者传统医保计划的语境假设。这个假设不与“优惠券”计划有关,也没有对上文语境产生影响,因此是非关联语境假设。
但是, 总统辩论中不会阐述毫无意义的话语,看似无关联的回答是值得花费努力重建语境寻找关联的。观众从短时记忆中提取语境假设发现,“当前”和“即将退休”与罗姆尼前文观点重合并加强前语境假设,“没有想要更改社保计划或医保计划中有关已经退休或者接近退休人士的那部分”,暗示了将要修改针对未来受益者的医保计划,委婉表达对“优惠券”计划的赞同。
(二)明示-推理的语用模式
说话者的明示言语行为能为听话者推导并实现交际意图,依靠说话者和听话者之间的认知互明(2006:24)。Sperber 和Wilson指出,交际双方所使用的认知语境是认知环境共同显映的部分,说话者在关联原则指导下通过明示刺激使一系列假设在听话者认知环境显映,引导听话者利用接收的图示信息构建新的认知语境理解说话者的交际意图。
例 2. CROWLEY: We're looking at a situation where40 percent of the unemployed have been unemployedfor six months or more. What about those long termunemployed who need a job right now?
ROMNEY: We have fewer people working todaythan we had when the president took office. If the -the unemployment rate was 7.8 percent when he tookoffice, it's 7.8 percent now. But if you calculated thatunemployment rate, taking back the people who droppedout of the workforce, it would be 10.7 percent.(TheSecond Presidential Debate, 2012)主持人对如何为公民创造就业机会提问,这是美国面临的严峻的社会问题,也是观众认知环境的组成部分。罗姆尼州长通过一系列数据明示失业现状,这些数据在观众的认知环境中显映,让人们意识到过去四年里奥巴马总统不仅没有减少失业率反而让失业率上升,从而得出奥巴马政府不值得信任的结论,达到了抨击对手的目的。【图1】
推理是对明示言语行为的非归约性解码,通过处理明示假设得到最佳关联的推理过程。听话者在最佳关联指导下解码明示刺激的信息意图,使其与心理图示的旧信息相互显映,然后构建一系列的语境假设来处理说话者建立的语境假设,并从新旧假设中得到语境效果,推导说话者的交际意图。
例3.SCHIEFFER: Governor, would you go beyondwhat the administration would do, like for example, wouldyou put in no-fly zones over Syria?
ROMNEY: I don't want to have our military involvedin Syria. I don't think there is a necessity to put ourmilitary in Syria at this stage. I don't anticipate that in thefuture. (The Third Presidential Debate, 2012)罗姆尼州长使用排比句式清晰表明观点,传达了信息意图。明示刺激“I don’t” 在观众认知环境里构建起如下语境假设:
(1)Military has been in Syria.
(2)The war goes on.
(3)Assad is still there.
(4)There have had millions of refugees.
语境假设(1)-(4)在观众的认知环境中显映,在最佳关联指导下,推断出以下结论:
(5)Ministry should not in Syria.
(6)We need reassess our policy.
当然,结论(6)还可以作为新语境假设投射到观众的认知语境,产生新的语境效果:
(7)Obama government conducted the wrongpolicy.
如果观众不想放弃,继续将结论(7)作为新信息和旧的认知语境相结合,即可产生结论(8),(9):
(8)The current president is not competent for thejob.
(9)There is a need to change a competentpresident.
在明示推理模式中,结论(8),(9)不是推理的终点,它们以图示或模块的形式存储于观众的认知语境内,成为下轮推理的初始信息,结合新的明示信息,使认知语境呈动态的发展。因此,认知语境具有动态性被作为语用策略应用在总统辩论中。
二 认识语境的语用策略
关联理论明示推理是非规约性推理,是最佳关联制约下的认知语境动态选择(2007:35)。事实上,并非每一个明示信息都具有最佳关联性(2008:209)。交际者为了自己的话语目的,刻意选取明示刺激,帮助甚至制约听话者构建语境假设,使明示刺激在关联理论的指导下产生语境效果,在此,认知语境的改变成为交际的语用策略。
(一)认知语境的扩大
总统大选政治辩论,双方主要目的不是争夺话语权,而是在辩论过程中将强调的部分或者意图回避的话题通过某种明示手段表现出来,引导观众、对手推导话语含义,展现交际意图。
例4. QUESTION: Mr. President, What can you sayto reassure me, but more importantly my parents, that Iwill be able to sufficiently support myself after I graduate?
OBAMA: Jeremy, first of all, your future is bright.And the fact that you're making an investment in highereducation is critical. Not just to you, but to the entirenation. Now, the most important thing we can do is tomake sure that we are creating jobs in this country. Andwhat I want to do, is build on the five million jobs tomake sure your future is bright. (The Second Presidential20岁的选民Jeremy就教育能否保障自食其力提问。奥巴马总统构建语境从三个层面回答。首先肯定Jeremy前途光明性和高等教育重要性。接着说明Jeremy的困惑是全国性的问题。随后阐述自己的政策。这部分多为论断性陈述句,语境逐步扩大,自信沉稳地向Jeremy和观众表达在自己的领导下,未来前景的光明。
认知语境扩展不仅可以作为积极语用策略宣扬政绩,也可以暂时规避尖锐问题,争取思考时间,同时成为抨击对手的利器。
例 5. CROWLEY: Governor, on the subject of gasprices?
ROMNEY: None of it came on federal land. Oilproduction is down 14 percent this year on federal land,and gas production was down 9 percent. Because thepresident cut in half the number of licenses and permitsfor drilling on federal lands. So where'd the increasecome from? Well a lot of it came from the Bakken Range.The administration brought a criminal action against thepeople drilling up there for oil. (The Second PresidentialDebate, 2012)在阐述观点前,罗姆尼州长构建语境对奥巴马总统展开激烈抨击。话题从油价扩展到能源,拓展语境指出政策的失误之处:
(1)None of the energy come from federal land.
(2)Production of oil and gas was down(3)President cut licenses and permits for drillingon federal lands.
(4)The increased energy comes from BakkenRange.
(5)The president forbade drilling up oil there forcause the kill of birds.
(6)The administration brought a criminal action.
综合语境假设(1)-(6),观众看到的是政策执行欠妥当甚至荒谬的政府。罗姆尼扩展假设成功引导观众构建认知语境,偏原有语境,不仅抨击对手还为宣扬政策奠定基础。
(二)认知语境缩小
总统辩论中交际者除了辩论双方,还包括主持人和听众。辩论双方因为社会背景、经历等因素几乎共享认知环境,辩论双方的明示刺激对彼此是显性的信息传达,体现信息意图;观众需要结合自己的语境假设,为明示信息构造新的认知语境,理解隐含的交际意图。因此,辩论者也会缩小认知语境回避敏感问题。
例 6 SCHIEFFER: Was it spontaneous? Was it anintelligence failure? Was it a policy failure? Was there anattempt to mislead people about what really happened?
OBAMA: I immediately made sure that, number one,that we did everything we could to secure those Americanswho were still in harm's way; number two, that we wouldinvestigate exactly what happened, and number three,most importantly, that we would go after those who killedAmericans and we would bring them to justice. (TheThird Presidential Debate, 2012)主持人对利比亚的恐怖袭击连续提问,询问事件原因,动机,质疑是否存在政策失误或者企图误导公众掩盖真相。面对敏感问题,奥巴马总统回顾了过去四年美国是如何打击恐怖活动并取得胜利之后,构建语境,缩小范围,从及时救援、调查原因、追踪疑凶三个方面回答,坚定公民对政府的信心,树立了强大的美国政府形象。 “immediately”以及条理清晰的陈述,作为明示信息让公众认识到政府的高效机制,重建对政府信任时,也忽略了奥巴马总统对敏感问题的回避。
(三)认知语境重建
总统辩论最重要的交际目的是宣扬策略,得到更多民众支持,获得自我价值的实现。面对犀利问题,过于迂回、规避会带来负面影响。为了实现交际目的,展现自信与潜质,交际者也会改变认知语境。
例7. QUESTION: Do you agree with Secretary Chuthat this is not the job of the Energy Department?
OBAMA: we still continue to open up new areas fordrilling. We continue to make it a priority for us to go afternatural gas. We've got potentially 600,000 jobs and 100years worth of energy right beneath our feet with naturalgas. And we can do it in an environmentally sound way.(The Second Presidential Debate, 2012)能源是总统辩论中关注重点话题之一,对能源部长的质疑就是对总统执政能力的质疑。因此,奥巴马总统完全绕开话题,构建语境,从正面回应自己执政的四年在能源方面做出的努力,指出降低能源需求的途径正是降低汽油价格的途径。在重构的语境中,奥巴马总统用数据说明过去四年政府采取的措施不仅缓解了能源危机,还创造了60万的工作岗位,不仅巧妙避开了问题,还从能源和就业两个方便宣扬了自己的政策。
结语
认知作为语用策略频繁运用在总统辩论中。辩论双方为了自己的政治目的,利用明示信息控制观众认知语境形成,达到宣扬政策、回避问题、抨击对手的目的。在阐述明示信息,或者引导观众推理中,无关联或者欠关联话语成为语用桥梁,成为委婉规避的主要策略。在最佳关联原则下的无关联和欠关联话语成为构建认知语境的重要因素。
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