结束语
从1830年教会成立至今,将近200年的历史中,黑人教徒是教会创立、成长、走向繁荣的见证者与亲历者。可以说,没有黑人教徒的宗教皈依,就没有摩门教会现在的辉煌业绩。虽然,黑人在美国历史上的社会地位随着内战、民权运动的开展而逐步上升与提高,但摩门教会在处理与黑人教徒的关系问题,黑人牧师的授予权问题始终牢牢地把握着主动权。
从1830年至今,教会对黑人教徒的政策大致可以归纳成以下几个阶段:(1)1830-1844年接纳期。这一时期也是教会创始人约瑟夫·史密斯担任教长的14年间,摩门教会是不排挤黑人教徒的。尽管有关于黑人奴隶制问题,教会领导人会根据当时的社会情境,一会赞成奴隶制,一会又赞成废奴运动,而且为避免与奴隶主的冲突,教会原则上是不鼓励向黑人奴隶布道的,但在史密斯生前,摩门教会不但发展黑人教徒还授予他们以圣职。加入摩门教会的黑人教徒完全被教会文化所同化。(2)1844-1848年转折期。1844年,史密斯殉道是摩门教会针对黑人教徒问题态度下降的转折点。
①尤其是黑人教徒威廉·麦凯里自称先知与白人女子实行多妻制,激怒了以杨百翰为首的教会领导人。1848年,摩门教会只是禁止黑人教徒成为牧师,但并没有颁布法令。(3)1848-1852年排斥期。摩门教徒西迁至大盆地,刚刚站稳脚跟,就迫不及待地要与黑人划清界限。
1852年,杨百翰直接授意犹他准州立法机关,官方颁布禁令,剥夺黑人被授予圣职、参加圣殿仪式的权利,同时限制黑人在世俗社会的权利。(4)1852-20世纪60年代,政策的延续与巩固期。美国内战结束,黑奴虽然获得解放,但随之而来的种族歧视政策又将黑人至于社会的最底层。摩门教会本身就歧视黑人,在这样的社会背景下,更是有恃无恐,堂而皇之的在教会内外,实行种族隔离政策。(5)20世纪60年代-1978年政策的松动期。60年代民权运动不仅为黑人争取到了与白人平等的权利,也为摩门教会的黑人教徒带来转机。迫于国内、国际形势的压力,摩门教会一改往日对黑人的强硬态度,开始自上而下地对禁令的实施范围、实施对象有所松动,并逐步回避扞卫禁令的经典教义问题。(6)1978年-至今政策全部废除。1978年,白人教徒、黑人教徒期盼已久的日子,终于以摩门教会特有的方式来临了(废除禁令的启示到来了)。禁令的彻底废除,标志着阻碍摩门教会海外扩展计划的绊脚石剔除了。但压在黑人教徒心目中的经典教义的巨石却始终无人撼动。用于扞卫禁令的教义每天都在出版发行,进入20世纪90年代,曾经有黑人教徒、进步的白人教徒要求教会废除这些教义,但教会认为禁令的废除就代表教会种族主义问题的终结。
纵观摩门教会近200年的发展历程,他能在较短的时间内由起初的小教派发展成犹他教会、西部教会、美国教会直至世界性宗教,一路走来,摩门教会自有其独特的魅力吸引广大教徒入教。但摩门教会单就黑人教徒的处理方式上,我认为似乎与其光明的远大前程不相匹配。
一提起世界性宗教,人们自然就会联想到海纳百川的度量与气势。世界性就意味着可以包容世界上存在的一切差异性与多样性。我们所生活的世界本身就是千差万别、千变万化的多样性世界。各民族、各种族的文化各不相同,但作为世界性文化的一份子,理应受到各国人民的理解与尊重。中华民族虽然种族单一,但民族文化多样,不同民族的宗教信仰也各不相同,但在中华民族的大家庭里,都可以找到自己的一席之地。而且,我国政府还制定相关政策保护、扶持少数民族的文化特色。黑人文化作为世界文化的一部分理应在摩门教会获得自己的位置与认同。前面谈到黑人的宗教文化与摩门教会文化存在很大差异,这就造成入教的黑人教徒很难适应白人教徒的教会生活。
身为摩门教会的黑人牧师,肩上的担子要比白人牧师更为复杂和繁重。他们不仅要传播福音,壮大教会,还要帮助新入教的黑人教徒尽快适应白人教会的生活,同时还要努力为教会树立良好的对外形象。在拉丁美洲反对摩门教会及传教士的暴力事件并不是因为摩门教的信仰本身,而是由于其典型的美国化特征。
①这些美国化特征容易让人联想到文化渗透或是文化帝国主义。针对摩门教会的恐怖袭击事件,教会所采取的的策略是大量缩减美国传教士的数量,而增加黑人传教士和黑人牧师的数量。笔者认为,摩门教会的应对措施还是非常明智的。这也表明,黑人牧师可以帮助教会改变对外形象,消除当地人对摩门教会的敌意与误解。如果没有黑人牧师的存在,摩门教会在美洲的扩展计划就不会进展得如此顺利。
虽然时至今日,教会针对黑人教徒的皈依、整合已经取得了突破性的进展,但我认为做得还不够,还没有完全展示出代表世界性宗教的诚意与包容度。虽然,种族主义教义问题,目前为止还不会影响到摩门教会未来的走势与发展,但作为世界性宗教,种族、民族、文化冲突问题仍是教会发展的永恒主题。在这一主题下,能否奏出和谐音符,却是关系教会发展的关键问题。
摩门教会作为世界性宗教,涉及到文化碰撞、交流的研究领域还远没有穷尽。有关于摩门教会文化与美国文化的关系、犹他教会总部文化与美国乃至世界其它地区区域性文化的关系、教会海外传教事业的发展还有很大的探讨空间。就目前来看,摩门教会在接受、推广基督教文化的区域,其发展态势还是非常令人满意的。但有学者称摩门教会是半球教会或是西半球教会,因为根据教徒的区域性分布图,85%的摩门教徒分布在西半球。
②这一结论表明摩门教会并不是没有在东方国家开辟宗教市场的远大理想,而只是迟迟没有等到有利时机。目前,摩门教会在香港、台湾、日本、韩国等东半球地区都成立了自己的区域分会并建立圣殿。这说明教徒人数已经达到一定规模,教会发展比较迅速。针对中国大陆的传教政策,教会也做出了适当调整。他们由原来的直接派遣传教士转为迂回战略。通过杨百翰大学的合作项目、摩门教会唱诗班来访、非教会资助的技术、商业专家来访等方式,培养目的国对教会的良好印象,为将来建立教会做好准备。
①看来摩门教会并不是没有在中国大陆传教的目标,而只是苦于没有找到合适的机会。
除了对摩门教会文化问题的研究之外,单就教会少数族裔教徒尤其是黑人教徒的研究,我们也有很大的发展余地。例如,众所周知摩门教会是男性牧师的教会,而摩门教会的女性教徒,她们作为男性教徒的陪衬,其教会生活又是怎样的呢?更进一步说,摩门教会的黑人女性教徒,她们的数量及宗教皈依经历又是怎样的呢?有学者指出,黑人教徒很少有终身的摩门教徒,对于黑人信徒的二代、三代,他们的宗教信仰也是一个非常值得研究的主题。
进入21世纪,摩门教会还在一如既往地以美国学者所预测的世界性宗教的轨迹发展着。摩门教会作为唯一一个在美国土生土长的宗教,其教会文化与美国文化具有无法割裂的相似性与传承性。对摩门教会的研究,在很大方面都是对美国文化、宗教信仰、价值取向的研究,期待国内会有更多学者投入到对摩门教会的研究领域中来。
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英文报刊:
[1] Anderson, David E., ”Mormon Acceptance of Blacks Resolves Church Controversy“, Baltimore Record,11 August 1978.
[2] ”Black Mormons PraiseAdmission of Blacks in Priesthood“, Pittsburgh Courtier, 24 June 1978, 16.
[3] Blum, Ida, ”History Explodes Negro Myth“, Nauvoo Independent, 30 December 1965, 1.
[4] ”Give Full Civil Rights to All; LDS Counselor Brown (Hugh B.) Asked“, Salt Lake City Tribune, 7October 1962, 1.
[5] Gudmunsen, Lance, ”Blacks Enter LDS Priesthood: Shatter Long Time Practice“, Salt Lake CityTribune, 11 June 1978, 1.
[6] Harris, Harvey, ”Bizarre Events Follow Mormon's Ordination“, Greensboro (NC)News, 3 September1978.
[7] Ivins, Molly, ”MormonAction on Blacks Promises Impact on Utah“, NewYork Times, 18 June 1978, 1.
[8] ”LDS Church Extends Priesthood to All Worthy Male Members“, Deseret News, 9 June 1978.
[9] Marchant, Byron, ”A Delayed Invitation“, Salt Lake City Tribune, 3 April 1978,5.
[10] McGraw, Bill, ”There Was at Least One Negro Who Rose to High Priesthood in Mormon Religion“,Southwestern, December 1963,1,27.
[11] ”Mormons and the Negro Issue“, San Francisco Chronicle, 20 December 1969, 15.
[12] ”Mormon Church Approves Black Males as Priests“, Chicago Tribune, 10 June 1978,1.
[13] ”Mormon Church Opens Priesthood to Blacks“, Houston Post, 10 June 1978,1a.
[14] ”Mormon Church President Kimball Opens Way for Blacks in Priesthood“, San Francisco Chronicle,10 June 1978, 1.
[15] ”Mormon Church Strikes Down 148-Year-Old Policy Against Blacks in Priesthood“, New York Times,10 June 1978, 1.
[16] ”Mormon Church to End Exclusion of Coloureds From Inner Temples and Priesthood“, London Times,16 June 1978, 6e.
[17] ”Mormons Admit Blacks to Priesthood“, African-American, 17 June 1978, 8.
[18] ”Mormons Open Priesthood to Blacks“, Detroit News, 21 July 1978, 19.
[19] ”Revelation Admits Blacks to Mormon Priesthood“, Bilalian News, 17 June 1978, 1a.
[20] ”Revelation Ends Racist Policy of Mormon Church“, New York Amsterdam News, 17 June 1978, 4.
[21] Ruppert, Ray, ”Mormon Race View Subject to Change“, Seattle Times, 8 March 1970.
[22] Tanner, Jerald, and Sandra Tanner, ”Negroes in the Priesthood“, Salt Lake City Messenger, November1965, 1.
[23] Trapp, Dan L., ”Mormons Seeming Bias on Negroes at Issue“, News Weekly, 2 September 1967,1,7.
博硕士论文
[1] Anderson, Ted S., ”The Southern State Mission and the Administration of Ben S. Rich 1898-1908“,Master's thesis, Brigham Young University, 1976.
[2] Ainsworth, Charles Harold, ”Religious and Regional Sources of Attitudes Toward Blacks AmongSouthern Mormons“, Ph.D. diss., Washington State University,1982.
[3] Atkinson, Walter Lynn, ”The Barbarism Exposed: an interpretive analysis of newspaper coverage ofMormonism, 1887-1888“, Ph.D. diss., University of Utah, 2003.
[4] Brewer, David L., ”Utah Elites and Racial Norms“, Ph.D. diss., University of Utah, 1966.
[5] Bringhurst, Newell G., ”A Servant of Servants: Cursed as Pertaining to the Priesthood: MormonAttitudes Toward Slavery and the Black Man 1830-1880“, Ph.D. diss., Brigham Young University,1973.
[6] Christensen, James W., ”The Construction of a Mormon Ideological Commitment Scale“, Master'sthesis, University of Utah, 1966.
[7] Dutston, Roldo W., ”A Study of the Attitudes of the Latter-day Saints Church in the Territory of Utah,Toward Slavery as it Pertained to the Indian as well as to the Negro from1847-1865“, Ph.D. diss.,Brigham Young University, 1964.
[8] Eddins, Boyd L., ”The Mormons and the Civil War“, Master's thesis, Utah State University, 1966.
[9] Evans, Linda Jeanne, ”Abolitionism in the Illinois Churches 1830-1865“, Ph.D. diss., NorthwesternUniversity, 1981.
[10] FengXi, ”A History of Mormon –Chinese Relation:1849-1993“, Ph.D. diss., Brigham YoungUniversity, 1994.
[11] Geis, Gilbert, ”A Study of Racial Attitudes and Problems in the Educational Program, Provo, Utah“, Mater's thesis, Brigham Young University, 1949.
[12] Gerrit, John D., ”Enemies Foreign and Domestic:U.S.Relations With Mormon in the U.S. Empire inNorth America, 1844-1854“, Ph.D. diss., University of Colorado at Boulder, 2010.
[13] Grover, Mark L., ”Mormonism in Brazil: Religion and Dependency in Latin America“, Ph.D. diss.,Indiana University, 1985.
[14] Hatch, Tom Whitridge, ”A History of Mormon Civil War Relations in the Southern States, 1865-1905“,Master's thesis, Utah State University, 1965.
[15] Haw, John Ben, ”The Mormon Image in the Ameican Mind: Shaping Public Perception of Latter-daySaints, 1968-2008“, Ph.D. diss., University of Utah, 2010.
[16] J ennings, Warren A., ”Zion is Fled: The Expulsion of the Saints from Jackson County“, Ph.D. diss.,University of Florida, 1962.
[17] Lelegren, Kelly, ”Real, Live Mormon Women: Understanding the Role of Early Twentieth-CenturyLDS Lady Missionaries“, master thesis, Utah State University, 2009.
[18] Lynett, Riggs A., ”The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' Indian Student PlacementService:A History“, Ph.D. diss., Utah State University, 2008.
[19] Lythgoe, Dennis Leo, ”The Changing Image of Mormonism in Periodical Literature“, Ph.D. diss.,University of Utah, 1966.
[20] Magg, Margaret J., ”Discrimination Against the Negro in Utah and Institutional Efforts to EliminateIt“, Master's thesis, University of Utah, 1968.
[21] Mauss, Armand L., ”Mormonism and Minorities“, Ph.D. diss., University of California, Berkeley,1970.
[22] McKay, Alice Smith, ”A Psychological Examination of a Few Prophecies of the Early Founders ofMormonism“, Master's thesis, University of Utah, 1930.
[23] Oliver, Louise D., ”The Mormons and Missouri, 1830-1839“, Master's thesis, University of KansasCity, 1943.
[24] Ricks, Nathaniel R., ”Peculiar Place for the Peculiar Institution: Slavery and Sovereignty in EarlyTerritorial Utah“, master thesis, Brigham Young University, 2007.
[25] Rickette, Jeremy R., ”Imaging the Saints: Representations of Mormonism in American Culture“, Ph.D.
diss., University of New Mexico, 2011.
[26] Wendell, Thomas Simpson, ”Mormon's Study “Abroad”:Latter-day Saints in American HigherEducation 1870-1940“, Ph.D. diss., University of Virginia, 2005.
后世圣徒教会出版物:
[1] ”Are Negroes Children of Adam?“, Millennial Star 65 (3 December 1903): 776-778.
[2] ”Aunt Jane James, Joseph Smith, The Prophet“, Young Women's Journal 16 (December 1905):551-553.
[3] Badger, Ralph A., ”A Victory Over Prejudice“, Millennial Star 70 (17 November 1907):60-61.
[4] Barbour, Miller W., ”Breaking the Barriers: Anti-Negro Prejudice Lessens in Western Hotels“, Frontier, November 1954, 5.
[5] Bennett, Wallace R., ”The Negro in Utah“, Utah Law Review 3 (spring 1953):340-348.
[6] Bennion, Lowell L., ”Religion and Social Responsibility 'Human Rights‘“, Instructor 100 (October1965):391.
[7] Broadbent, Cecil, ”The Negro and Our Heavenly Father's Plan“, Mitarbeiter, 7 January 1966, 1-4.
[8] Brown, Victor, Jr., ”Minorities:ALatter-day Saint Definition“, New Era 2 (September 1972): 20-21.
[9] ”Booker T. Washington's Views of the Mormons“, The Improvement Era 16 (June 1913):807-808.
[10] Buckmiller, Golden A., ”President Kimball Inspires Members to Improve Their Lives“, Church News,19 December 1981, 6.
[11] Cannon, George Q., ”Emancipation of the Slaves…The Prophet Joseph's Plan-Result of Its Rejection“LDS Millennial Star 25 (14 February 1863):97-101.
[12] Cannon, George Q., ”Theories on the Origin of Man“, Juvenile Instructor 3 (15 August1868):124-125.
[13] Cannon, George Q., ”From Caucasian to Negro“, Juvenile instructor 3 (15 September 1868): 141-142.
[14] Cannon, George Q., ”Man and Varieties“, Juvenile instructor 3 (1 October 1868): 145-146.
[15] Cannon, George Q., ”Mixed Races-Effects of Climate“, Juvenile instructor 3 (1 November 1868):
174-175.
[16] ”Citizenship Denied to Negroes in Missouri“, Evening and Morning Star 2 (July 1833):218.
[17] Durham, Homer G., ”Some American History and the Civil Rights Act of 1964“, Improvement Era 67(August 1964): 630-687.
[18] ”First Presidency Statement on Blacks“, 15 December 1969, Church News, 10 January 1970, 12.
[19] ”First Presidency Councils Against Racial Prejudice, Religious Intolerance, Terrorism and Crime“,Ensign 12 (March 1982):78.
[20] Hanna, David and Steve Ostler, ”No Respecter of Persons“, Ensign 11 (August 1981):18-21.
[21] Hart, John L., ”LDS Blacks in Same Ward, Just Different Hospitals“, Church News 4 October 1980, 5.
[22] Hemming, Jan, ”Black Author Discovers Mormon Way“, Church News, 19 May 1979.
[23] Hyde, Orson, ”Slavery Among the Saints“, LDS Millennial Star 13 (15 February 1851):63.
[24] Hyde, Orson, ”Negroes-Cain descendants to eventually receive blessings“, LDS Millennial Star 14 (14December 1851):418.
[25] Lamb, John, ”My Responsibility“, Improvement Era 69 (January 1966):36-37.
[26] Maxwell, Neal A., ”The Church Now Can Be Universal With Priesthood Revelation of 1978“, ChurchNews, 5 January 1980, 5.
[27] Newell, Linda K., and Valeen Tippetts Avery, ”Jane Manning James: Black Saint, 1847 Pioneer“,Ensign 9 (August 1979):26-29.
[28] Pratt, Orson, ”The Pre-existence of Man“, Seer 1 (April 1853):54-56.
[29] Smith, Joseph, Jr., ”The Prophet's Views on Abolition“, ”LDS Church's Position on Negroes inMissouri“, ”Church's Stand on Slavery and Abolition“, ”The Prophet's Views of the Negro Race“, ”Two Negroes Were Tried for Attempting to Marry White Women“, ”Petition to Eliminate Slavery“,History of the Church, 7 vols. Salt Lake City: Deseret Press, 1978.
[30] Smith, Joseph Fielding, ”The Negro and the Priesthood“, Liahona, The Elders' Journal 5 (18 April1908):164-167.
[31] Widtsoe, John A., ”Were the Negroes Neutral in Heaven?“, ”Evidences and Reconciliation“, TheImprovement Era 44 (June 1944):385.
[1][英]阿雷恩·鲍尔德温等着:《文化研究导论》,陶东风等译,北京:高等教育出版社,2004年。
[2][美]保罗·蒂利希着:《基督教思想史》,尹大贻译,北京:东方出版社,2008.
[3][美]丹尼尔·布尔斯廷:《美国人民主历程》,中国对外翻译出版公司译,香港:美国驻华大使馆新闻文化处,1987年。
[4][美]迪克斯坦着:《伊甸园之门:六十年代美国文化》,方晓光译,上海:上海外语教育出版社,1985.
[5][美]杜蒙德着:《现代美国1896-1946》,宋岳亭译,北京:商务印书馆,1984
[6][美]E.泰尔斯基,[美]M.泰尔斯基着,《美国的文化与传统概览》,陈维雅译,北京:旅游教育出版社,1989.
[7][英]吉尔伯特着:《美国历史地图》,王玉菡译,北京:中国青年出版社,2009
[8][美]刘易斯着:《文化驱动世界》,李家真译,北京:外语教学与研究出版社,2007.
[9][美]莫里森等着:《美利坚共和国的成长》,南开大学历史系美国史研究室译,天津:天津人民出版社,1991.
[10][美]乔安妮·格兰特着:《美国黑人斗争史》,郭瀛等译,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1987.
[11][美]乔恩·谢泼德,哈文·沃思合着:《美国社会问题》,乔寿宁,刘云霞合译,太原:山西人民出版社,1987.
[12][美]斯坦利·J·巴伦着:《大众传播概论:媒介认知与文化》,刘鸿英译,北京:中国人民出版社,2005.
[13][美]W·Z·福斯特着:《美国历史中的黑人》,余家煌译,北京:生活·读书·新知三联书店,1960.
[14][美]西格尔着:《多难的旅程:四十年代至八十年代初美国政治生活史》,刘绪贻等译,北京:商务印书馆,1990.
中文着作:
[1]陈村富主编:《宗教与文化:早期基督教与教会哲学》,北京:东方出版社,2001.
[2]陈浩,曾琦云编着:《宗教文化导论》,杭州:浙江大学出版社,2006.
[3]陈志杰着:《顺应与抗争:奴隶制下的美国黑人文化》,北京:中国科学出版社,2010.
[4]丁汉儒编着:《中国宗教理论和政策纲要》,兰州:兰州大学出版社,2006.
[5]董小川:《美国文化概论》,北京:人民出版社,2006年。
[6]董小川:《儒家文化与基督教新教文化》,北京:商务印书馆,1999年。
[7]董小川:《现代欧美国家宗教多元化的历史与现实》,上海:上海三联书店,2008年。
[8]董小川主编:《世界文化史》,北京:高等教育出版社,2002年。
[9]高春常:《文化的断裂:美国黑人问题与南方重建》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,2000年。
[10]顾兴斌:《二战后美国黑人的社会地位研究》,南昌:江西人民出版社,2003年。
[11]蒋栋元:《走进神秘殿堂-摩门教》,北京:光明日报出版社,2011年。
[12]刘鸿武:《黑非洲文化研究》,上海:华东师范大学出版社,1997年。
[13]毛华鹤:《印象美利坚AND欧罗巴》,北京:石油工业出版社,2009年。
[14]王晓朝,李磊主编:《宗教学导论》,北京:首都经济贸易大学出版社,2006年。
[15]王崇尧:《宗教与文化:基督宗教与现代伦理》,台湾:台湾复文兴业股份有限公司,1993年。
[16]谢英兰:《美国黑人文化》,北京:中国妇女出版社,2003年。
[17]熊坤鑫主编:《宗教理论与宗教对策》,北京:中央民族大学出版社,2008年。
[18]游斌:《希伯来圣经的文本、历史与思想世界》,北京:宗教文化出版社,2007.
[19]赵林:《西方文化概论》,北京:高度教育出版社,2008.
[20]卓新平:《全球化的宗教与当代中国》,北京:社会科学文献出版社,2008.
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