摘 要
在人类历史发展的漫长进程中，动物一直与人类保持着密切联系并对人类的生存、发展有着深刻的影响。众所周知，在不同语言和文化背景下，每个词除了具有字面意义外，还有丰富的文化内涵。由于文化背景的不同，英汉动物词汇所表述的意义存在着较大的差异。本文就几种动物词汇在不同的文化背景中所体现的不同的 文化内涵进行对比研究,以便对提高动物词汇的运用和语言的互译能力有所帮助。
关键词：动物词汇；对比研究；文化背景；文化内涵；对比语言学
Abstract
Animals have been kept in touch with us in the long proceeding of the development ofhumankind, and closely related with the survival and development of human. As everyone knowsunder different languages and different culture background, one word not only has denotationmeaning, but also has wonderful cultural connotation. Owing to the different culture background,there are many differences between the meanings of English and Chinese lexicons. This articledoes a comparative research about the different meaning of them with different culturebackground，in order to improve the use of animal lexicons and the ability of language mutualtranslation.
Keywords: Animal lexicons; Comparative investigation； Culture background；Cultural connotation； Contrastive linguistics
Contents
1 Introduction
2 Literature Review
2.1 English-Chinese Contrastive Linguistics
2.2 Animal Lexicons and Translation
2.3 Associative Meaning of Animal Words in Chinese and English
2.4 A Brief Summary of the Related Studies
3 The cognition analysis of animal lexicons
3.1 common properties of language and human cognition of animal characteristics
3.1.1 The Influence on Human Cognition from Animals in the External World
3.1.2 The Source of Cognition of Animal Lexicons
3.2 Cognition-semantic Conceptions of Animal Lexicons
4 Compare English and Chinese Animal Lexicons in Cultural Connotations
4.1 The Same or Similar Cultural Connotations of one Animal in the two Languages
4.2 The Different Cultural Connotations of one Animal in the two Languages
4.2.1 The Difference from Traditional Culture
4.2.2 The Differences from Aesthetic Sense and Social Mentality
4.3 The Same or Similar Cultural Connotations of Different Animals in the two Languages
5 Conclusion
References
1 Introduction
Human beings always have inseparable relations with animals, some of which are humanfriends, and some of which are human enemies, in the long period of time when man is inharmony with animals, he has come to realize that all animals, whether they are friends orenemies, contribute much to man's living. Therefore, animal lexicons come into humancommunicating languages one by one. It can be said that human language always have countlessties with the outside world, and such acts are mainly incarnated in human speed act. For thepurpose of their effective communication, human beings constantly revise and supplementlanguages so as to increase the quality of what they are going to say. Animal lexicons play a veryimportant role in human linguistic communication.
Everyone knows that human beings have never been in isolation in this boundless universe.All animals are neighbors to the mankind and our ancestors have named them in our languages.In doing so, our neighbors have came into our languages and made the latter lexicons colorfuland semantically vivid. The expressive power of our languages is enhanced. As two of the mostwidely used languages, both Chinese and English are full of animal words. Superficially, thisdissertation deals with the function of animal lexicons in the use of linguistics, and culturalconnotation, but at a deep level, it discusses the problem of how to recognize the essence ofanimal words used in our language. The tendency to use animal lexicons widely has affected allaspects of human society. Social development and cultural progress cannot be made withoutlanguage. Any economical law and conception can exist only through linguistic texts, and anyculture is hard to imagine without language being a carrier. Meanwhile human most importantthinking activity is inevitably realized by language.
It is evident that language development of two meanings in communication and thanking isclosely related with cultural progress. Widely used animal lexicons in the world also strengthenexchanges and dialogues between cultures of all nations, and promote the formation of globalcultural pluralism. Of course, linguistics is a universally used science in the course ofcommunication. Further knowledge of linguistics, to be exact, of cognitive linguistics, including cognitive pragmatics and cognitive semantics, is very important to the cognition of animallexicons used in human communication.
Interested readers can read the fairy tales of the Grimm brothers and Hans ChristianAnderson to get the feel of animal words.
2 Literature Review
2.1 English-Chinese Contrastive Linguistics
English-Chinese Contrastive Linguistics is a branch of linguistics, with the characteristicsof both theoretical linguistics and applied linguistics, making contemporary and historicalcontrastive studies of both languages. It describes and explains peculiarities as well as universalsof English and Chinese, thus applying achievements to fields of theoretically linguistic researchand the application of languages.（杨自俭，2000：13）Contrastive linguistics is to compare twoor more languages or dialects, and to reveal consistency and divergence of languages. In 1941,American linguist B.L. Whorf first adopted the term of contrastive linguistics in his essaylanguage and logic. Much progress has been made in classifying the languages of the each intogenetic families, each having descent from a single precursor, and in tracing such developmentthrough time. The result is called ‘contrastive linguistics’. Of even greater importance forfuture technology of thought is what might be called ‘contrastive linguistics’. This plots theoutstanding differences among tongues--in grammar, logic, and general analysis of experience.（李瑞华，1996：70）
In china, pioneer researchers such as Zhao Yuanren and Lu Shuxiang have established thefoundation for the English-Chinese contrastive linguistics. Famous scholars in linguistics haveall made great contributions: Wang Zongyan has summarized the study into pure contrastivetheoretical study and the researches for teaching; Liu Miqing emphasizes the aspects ofheterogeneous(杨自俭，2000：11-12). According to Yang (杨自俭；2000：15), there are threekinds of research modes: One is micro description, the second is theoretical explanation, and thethird is applied research. The research content consists of four aspects: micro, macro, theoretical research and applied research.
Micro research includes phonetic study, the study of words studies the structures, types,functions of English and Chinese languages, and the relationship at each level will be revealed.
Macro research tries to analyze the influence of social, cultural factors and mode of thinking onthe levels of language, thus showing features of language in structures and functions. Theoreticalresearch ranges from the object of study, the nature of the subject, to the systematic theories andmethodologies, or in one word, the exploration of a theoretical framework. Applied researchmainly involves the application of language theories.
2.2 Animal Lexicons and Translation
Almost all the major theorists of translation, as well as most leading scholars and writers,have taken one side or the other, though several have argued for a compromise, advancingarguments that some accept while others do not. Similarly, concerning the Christian translationof the Old and New Testament in the West, there was the same kind of controversy: Translationcommittees were summoned and dismissed time and again because there was a division ofopinion between whether to adopt the literal or sense-for-sense approach. In fact, the contentionhas lasted to the present day.
As an English major, translation is one of the most important skills of us. Generally, weshould translate something from its associative meaning, just from its denotation is meaningless.
Weather the study is one-sided or systematic; nearly all the papers involve translation ofanimal words. The purpose of translation is to import all the information of the source languageinto the target language, and meanwhile achieve the most equivalent effect. The animalmetaphors have lively images and can provoke a direct image in readers' minds. The translationmethods of animal lexicons include adaptation, simile with additional explanation, paraphraseand annotation according to the target language's culture and language habit, time background,geographical environment, custom.
2.3 Associative Meaning of Animal Words in Chinese and English
In Geoffrey leech (leech, 1981: 23)'s semantics, he classified the meaning of a word intoseven types among which connotative meaning, stylistic meaning, affective meaning, collocationmeaning and reflected meaning generally fall into one category: associative meaning. Paperspublished in this field of research have all discussed the loaded meaning generated by the literalmeanings of animal lexicons in two cultures. Some animals such as fox, pig, swan, snail, and soon, have exactly the same or similar associative meanings in both cultures; some animals likepetrel, bat, dragon, owl, so on and so forth, stand for absolutely different images; and owing todifferent natural surroundings, there is exclusiveness of animals existing in either the orient orthe occident. Consequently, by the word nightingale, an Englishman means the person who notonly excels at singing but also is a teller(告密或坐探); and a Chinese knows that a person who iscalled a common carp(鲤鱼)can swim or move against the tide; and halibut (比目鱼)are used toname inseparable friends or lovers. To be specific, people's ways of living, animals' naturaltemperaments and social customs all play important roles in the change of associative meaningsof animal words.
In the study of associative meaning of animal lexicons, the discussion of connotativemeanings occupies a dominant place. The connotations of animal lexicons in one language donot necessarily coincide with those in another, so there is much to talk about, and numerous factsof different culture-loaded animal lexicons have been cited or just listed. The representativefigure is Liao Guangrong from the Foreign Language School, Human Normal University.
2.4 A Brief Summary of the Related Studies
From the above researches, it can be seen that a contrastive study of Chinese and Englishanimal words plays a dominant role, with empirical studies taking up a small percentage. It'sconcerned applications in the cross-cultural communication and translation has taken priority.
Further analyses reveal that certain problems exist in contemporary researches, such asrepetitious researches on some topics, inadequate attention paid to compound animal lexicons,pragmatic function of animal lexicons and lack of cognitive concern about culture-loaded animal lexicons. Therefore, this dissertation is going to explore animal lexicons from the angles of theillocutionary force and the cognitive concern in linguistics.
3 The cognition analysis of animal lexicons
3.1 common properties of language and human cognition of animal characteristics
The study of cognitive linguistics based on philosophy and psychology is pursued afteridealist conception and objectivism have been thrown away. The philosophic foundation isexperiential realism combing subjectivist ideas with objectivism phenomena. Experientialrealism emphasizes the importance of experience, human cognition and human language.
Animals and their ancestors, the protozoan, are capable of movement. Animals haveevolved many different body plans. Each phylum in the animal kingdom has a unique body plan.
The Philological Society is devoted to the scholarly study of language and languagesWhat are some of the ways that animals are alike? Over many years, zoologists (scientists that study animals) have developed a system toclassify animals according to characteristics they share.
3.1.1 The Influence on Human Cognition from Animals in the External World
Human experiences come from the interaction between mankind and experience follows acertain law and has a certain structure. Therefore object nature, between human beings andanimals, and so on. Every live reality reflected in human brain from a cognitive world orcognitive structure. According to the intentional view held by cognitive linguists, the expressionsconveyed by lexicons only reflect the sections arresting people's attention. Therefore, people'sunderstanding of animals is the major concern of theirs. Accordingly, animal characteristicsexplained either by appearances or by their temperaments would be represented though humanlanguage.
The fact that cognitive linguistics is affected by psychology can be explained with such an example:Dragons and tigers are very ferocious and terrible. Everyone knows that enters dragon'spool or tiger's den would have life-and-death danger. In general, most people fear death, which ispeople's psychological reflection. Later, a dangerous place of any kind is referred to as dragon'spool and tiger's den-a danger spot, and at the same time it is also taken as a psychologicalreflection. This shows that human cognition of things gives an impetus to the changes in humanpsychology and promotes human cognition of animal lexicons used in the communicativelanguage. In a sense, cognition is the result that human beings have brought in perceiving adexperiencing the outside world, and is the inevitable outside world.
3.1.2 The Source of Cognition of Animal Lexicons
In fact, one of the achievements made in the study of linguistic common property should bethat linguistic common property is the internality of gene. The research indicates that language isa physiological phenomenon controlled by gene, and all the genetic types of human language arealmost the same. This is the physiological source of linguistic common property. The closerelation of language to thought cognition provides a branch for us to study the linguistic commonproperty. On the one hand, language is so inseparable from thought that language will ever carrytraces of thought. The common cognition of animals' characteristics and the adoption of animalwords in every case are in fact the cognitive sources of studying linguistic common property.
Monkeys are very familiar to people. They are clever, capable, intelligent, and somewhatmischievous. Since human beings evolved from apes millions of year ago, people are all likemonkeys to a certain extent. So in the Chinese culture, monkeys are used to show one of thetwelve animal years in which people are born. The existence of this consciousness proves thathuman common cognition of the animals of thus kind directly comes from the changes in humangene.
And on the other hand, the consistency of human genetic types and the similarity of humanbasic cognitive pattern are unity of opposites in a sense. Both the conditions of millions of years between human body and mind are outside surroundings.
3.2 Cognition-semantic Conceptions of Animal Lexicons
Semantic and pragmatic theories of natural language purport to give an abstract account ofreasoning with natural language, but they are mainly based on the evidence of linguistic intuition.Psychologists study people reasoning in the course of performing reasoning tasks, but they studyreasoning largely without recourse to semantic or pragmatic theories of the language and otherrepresentations involved.
The research findings in animal lexicons explain the fact that semantic origin of animallexicons come into being through comparison between human's mentality on animal lexicons andontological consciousness. In the semantic structure of all languages, there exist two aspects: oneis that the distinctive correlates between mankind and animals are ignored; the other is that thedistinctive correlates between them are stressed from a certain perspective.
Different languages have different strategies in designation of cognitive-semantic correlatesof animal lexicons, while a similar designation takes place within a language. The ontologicalconsciousness is responsible for the formation of the binary opposite attitude of mankindreflected in the strategies of designation.
4 Compare English and Chinese Animal Lexicons in Cultural Connotations
William who is a professor in English said the word “culture” is one of the most complexwords in English. There are a lot of definitions of it. It is very difficult for people to give anaccurate connotation to culture. A famous language expert said analyze a word must from thesentence; analyze a sentence must from the occasion; analyze the occasion must from the culture.
That means culture is extremely important for us to learn language. We know that differentculture gives language various connotation.
It is very useful for us to learn language by analyzing and comparing the difference of English and Chinese animal lexicons from cultural linguistics and comparative linguistics byculture also can reveal the difference between English culture and Chinese culture.
Due to different culture background, many animals have difference cultural connotationsin different languages. Chinese assign human qualities or virtues to various animals, puttingthem in two categories good or evil. English speaking peoples, however, seem to be lessconcerned about this classification.
4.1 The Same or Similar Cultural Connotations of one Animal in the two Languages
Owing to similar environment of human’s life , English and Chinese people recognizedanimal from it's basic attribute, of course, there be same or similar connection mind, give thesame cultural connotation to animal lexicons. For example，Englishmen said: “He is a fox”. Chinese people's understanding is“他这个人非常狡猾。”So they both use fox describingsomeone crafty and sly in English and in Chinese. For another instance , as cunning as a fox (像狐狸一样狡猾).
There are many animal have the same cultural connotation under different culturalbackground. Both in English and Chinese, “sheep” is a tractable and meek temperament animal. This word compared temperate, respectful and submissive in English and China.
Parrot(鹦鹉)is a bird can imitate person's pronounce ,both in two countries it shows thatonly can mechanically follow other people’s point , without independent view for himself. Pig not only has dirty and greedy natural disposition, also has lazy, foolish and uglycultural connotations. As well, eat like a pig；make a pig of oneself (指大吃大喝).” Out of these examples, we can see that different cultural language endowed the sameanimal lexicon the same cultural connotation.
4.2 The Different Cultural Connotations of one Animal in the two Languages
Due to two nations' life in the different cultural background for a long time, so they haddifferent connect in their mind for one animal, and endowed animal lexicons more wonderful cultural connotation.
Then, analysis of one animal has different cultural connotation in English and Chinese willbe done from different traditional culture and different aesthetic sense and social mentality.
4.2.1 The Difference from Traditional Culture
Animal words with special implications originated very early in China. Examples aredragon ／龙,phoenix ／凤,turtle ／龟,unicorn ／麟. Some of these words used in myths areno longer very productive. Many English animal words, however, only acquired specialmeanings in modern times.
Dragon is an animal who has a traditional myth in China and west countries. Lucky andhonorable dragon in China, but evil and cruel in England. In Chinese cultural, dragonsymbolized lucky. Authority, noble and flourishing. Chinese people is “龙的传人” . In feudalsociety , dragon symbolized emperor , past dynasties emperor all called themselves “真龙天子” .
So far , dragon is also paramount in Chinese people’s heart , we called our country “ 东方巨龙” ,dragon may regard as totem of Chinese national . In Chinese , such as “bold cursive calligraphy(龙飞凤舞)”,“scene of bustling activity (龙腾虎跃)”,“danger spot (龙潭虎穴)”,“imperial palace(龙楼凤阁)”are all emerged dragon’s cultural connotation in China. While in the west cultural,people thought dragon standing for evil, is a ferocious monster, and is demon’s incarnation. InEnglish, they called fierce and brutal women is “dragon”, for example, “She is a real dragon,you’d better keep away from her. (她是凶狠的母夜叉，最好离她远点).” Because English andChinese different cultural, one animal has different connotations, brings a great different connectin people’s mind. If people want to use English express dragon of Chinese meaning, he hadbetter translate to “the Chinese dragon”. Such as “亚洲四小龙” may translate to “Four tigers”,not “Four dragons”, in order to avoid misunderstand .
The similar animal has phoenix. In Chinese traditional culture, phoenix is a magical animal,and it is a king of birds, people use phoenix comparing empress. Therefore, in China, phoenixsymbolized “lucky”. While phoenix compared “pure” in English, also has “regenerate,resurrection” meaning. For instance “Religion , like a phoenix , has been resurrected from the ashes of the war (宗教就像凤凰一样，在战争的灰烬中又复活了 )。”
Then, we learn that owing to different traditional culture, one animal word has differentconnotations in English and Chinese.
4.2.2 The Differences from Aesthetic Sense and Social Mentality
The virtue of culture or aesthetic virtue of culture should be accounted as the key word inunderstanding culture, just like truth is made to be a key word in understanding knowledge.
Social mentality consists of social sense, psychological tendency and cultural spirits. Inessence, it spiritually reflects how the changes of social being influence the social subject. Socialmentality indicates the vital incentive and momentum for social behavior, which has beenaffecting and controlling people’s social activity and behavior choice.
Aesthetic sense and social mentality's difference made one animal has different praise andsense in the two cultures. It's about two national people's likes and dislikes of animals. If you likethis animal, the lexicon of that animal tends to praise. On the contrary, it tends to sense. Forexample:
In English and Chinese, dog's basic meaning is identical, but there is a big differencebetween two cultural connotations. In English language, the dog is not only a useful animal, butman’s best friend as well. Dog is a commendatory term in the most public in English, and it iseven treated as a family member, it can describe those who can be worth sympathetic andtrusting people, such as, to help a lame dog over a stile(助人度过难关); a lucky dog(幸运儿); anold dog(老手);love me, love my dog(爱屋及乌); every dog has his day(人人皆有得意时).Obviously, these reflected English people's cultural mentality, they regard dog as lovelycompanion, the best friend of human, “as faithful as a dog” is described people's loyal. However,in the Chinese culture, the dog is almost always used in bad language. It is suffering abusivefrom people frequently; it stands for mean and hateful moral character. All including “dog” expressions are obvious having color of derogatory, such as running dog，cruel andunscrupulous，gang of scoundrels(狐群狗党)；lackey(狗腿子)；a cornered beast will dosomething desperate (狗急跳墙)；a filthy mouth can not cutter decent language(狗嘴里吐不出象牙) and so on.
Intelligent owl and ominous owl. Owl is a intelligent and quick-wit bird in English, so it has“quick-wit and intelligent” cultural connotations, for instance, as wise as an owl(像猫头鹰一样聪明。) However, in Chinese people's heart, owing to it sounds wretched at night; People thoughtit is an ominous thing. When they heard owl's voice, they can think of something will behappened, so produced this words “owl come in house, good luck come out”.
Then, I give two examples about one animal in English is derogatory, while in Chinese hascolor of commendation.
Such as: the “Shan yang” brand clock made in China has good quality, and sold well in thenational market. But it is lifeless in England, the reason is the brand .In China, “Shan yang” stand for learned people, kindergarten’s children all knows “Lao Shan Yang Ye Ye” has a lot ofknowledge; but “goat” including “lustful and decent man” cultural connotation in England .Fromthis, we can know that one animal brings great difference connect in people’s mind in thedifferent cultural background.
In Chinese people’ mind, bull stands for strong, working hard and willing to contribute, so itgains people’ s glory. in Chinese, there are a large number of words which people used to praisebull, for example, strong as a bull(健壮如牛),of great strength as a bull(力大如牛)and so on.
While, in English, the view of people for bull is totally different from Chinese people. Theimpression bull gives person is run amuck worse tamper. So, they usually use bull to describerude person. For example, a bull in china-shop(动辄闯祸的人).In economic terminology, bullused to describe opportunist who takes advantage of every chance for success. For example, abull market(投机市场).Also, it has this kind of expression, to bull the market(使股票行情上涨).
Disagreeable magpie and announce good news magpie. Magpie compared the person wholikes chattering、jabber on and on in English. But in C object(吉祥鸟), it gets in touch withhappy events，auspicious(吉利)，lucky. People often said: “magpie shouting, happy eventscoming in”, magpie coming stands for having good news. Henna, magpie is praised good luck.
Pitiable fish and bring rich for people's fish. In English, fish has color of derogatory, usualdescribing bad men and bad things, such as a poor fish(可怜虫)；a loose fish(生活放荡的女人)；fish in the air (水中捞月). In Chinese, “鱼” and “余” , Chinese people must have fish on thetable on New Year's Eve. It is said that even if had no fish, people also can make forms of fishesuse wood, and put it on the table, expressed every year have fish that good anxiously expect.
From these examples above we know due to different aesthetic sense and social mentality inEnglish and Chinese people’s mind, there are many differences between English and Chineseanimal lexicons. And so it makes one animal word has wonderful connotations in English andChinese.
4.3 The Same or Similar Cultural Connotations of Different Animals in the two Languages
Different animals have the same or similar cultural connotations in the two languages,means that in English and Chinese, people use different animals to express the same meaning.
Though animals are difference in two languages, they have similar metaphoric meaning. Compared “ worry ”, Chinese people use “热锅上的蚂蚁”、English people use “ like a cat on hotbricks(热砖上的猫)”.Compared “brag”, Chinese people use “talk big”, but in English is “talkhorse”. Chinese people like use cattle to describe great physical strength; while in English shoulduse horse, like, “he is as strong as a horse.”
In Chinese, people often use “猫哭老鼠”to describe false and hypocritical(伪善), in English,the similar expression is “shed crocodile tears”(鳄鱼的眼泪). Chinese people regard tiger as theking of animal, so they often use “tiger” describing brave and fierce. While in English is “lion”,just like, “as bold as a lion.”
All the examples above show that different animals have the same or similar culturalconnotations in two languages. Different cultures bring about different languages on expressing. As well, animal lexicons have wonderful connotations.
5 Conclusion
This paper analyzes the English-Chinese contrastive linguistics, associative meaning,connotations, translation and culture differences of animal word in English and Chinese. It tellsus that when we study animal lexicons, we should pay attention to the background.
From this thesis, we know with different culture background, aesthetic sense, socialmentality, geographical background, time background and historical background in English and Chinese, language have different expressions. They make one word with same or similar culturalconnotation in the two languages; one word with different cultural connotation in the twolanguages; different word with the same or similar cultural connotation. So, with these, ourlanguage makes our life more wonderful.
As a language learner, we not only know lexicons' denotation, but also can master itscultural connotations, only like this, we can do less mistake in applying language progress, thuscan improve our flexible and accurately apply language's ability, also can improve culturalawareness and boarding our future language research field.
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